1.Introduction
Immanuel Kant, born in the late 18th century in Germany, is one of the most important and influential figures in the history of modern philosophy. His philosophy presented innovative ideas in various fields such as epistemology, ethics, and political philosophy.
Kant revolutionized epistemology through his work “Critique of Pure Reason.” He explored the role and limitations of reason, as well as the interaction between experience and reason, providing in-depth analysis of the limits and possibilities of knowledge. In doing so, Kant emphasized the importance of reason while also recognizing the interaction between empirical facts and the formation of knowledge, establishing an epistemological framework.
Furthermore, Kant conducted philosophical analyses of ethical issues. His ethics developed through works like “Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals” and “Critique of Practical Reason.” Kant examined moral obligations, human moral worth, and the principles of action. He introduced the concept of rational moral law, contributing to the understanding of moral judgment and principles of duty.
Kant’s political philosophy presented an ideal model for peace and international legal order through his work “Perpetual Peace.” He philosophically investigated the conditions of a just state, individual rights and obligations, and international relations. Kant proposed ways to establish a peaceful world order based on freedom and justice.
Kant’s philosophy has had a profound impact on the development of modern philosophy, and his works and ideas continue to be studied and evaluated today. His philosophy provides deep insights into reason, ethics, human dignity, and influences our thinking and actions.
2. Life
Immanuel Kant, born on April 22, 1724, in Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia), and passed away on February 12, 1804, in the same city, had a significant impact on German thought and philosophy.
Kant was born into a modest family, and his parents worked as a farmer and a factory worker. He studied philosophy at the local university, Albertus University, where he was greatly influenced by his philosophy professor, Matthias Katerla. After graduating, Kant dedicated himself to teaching and private research, advancing his philosophical ideas.
In 1755, Kant gained fame as a philosopher with the publication of his work “Critique of Pure Reason.” Subsequently, in 1770, he was appointed as a professor at the University of Königsberg, where he spent his entire life teaching and conducting research. He wrote extensively and developed his scholarly influence during his tenure at the university.
Following the publication of “Critique of Pure Reason” in 1781, Kant expanded his philosophical ideas through works like “Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals” (1785) and “Critique of Judgment” (1790). These works are recognized as some of the most influential in modern philosophy.
Aside from his philosophical achievements and academic career, Kant emphasized leading a moral life. He maintained regular habits and adhered to a disciplined routine, including attending church at specific times. Furthermore, he strove to live according to moral principles in his personal conduct.
Kant’s contributions to philosophy continue to shape philosophical discourse and have a lasting impact on various fields of study. His rigorous examination of reason, ethics, and the nature of knowledge has made him one of the most prominent figures in the history of philosophy.
3. Kant’s Philosophy
Kant’s philosophy encompasses various aspects of human understanding, reason, ethics, and knowledge.
- Interaction of Experience and Reason: Kant emphasized the interaction between experience and reason as a crucial concept. He argued that reason possesses the necessary structures and principles to organize and comprehend experience. Reason is involved in understanding and interpreting empirical facts, and through the interaction of experience and reason, knowledge is formed.
- Transcendental Idealism: In his work “Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant explored the limits and possibilities of reason. He claimed that human reason can operate in a realm beyond the empirical world, which he called the “transcendental” realm. In this realm, reason can contemplate and understand the impossible, and pure reason’s activities can be experienced in domains such as art, religion, and ethics.
- Moral Duty and Ethics: Kant delved into ethical issues in his works “Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals” and “Critique of Practical Reason.” He argued that moral duty should be based on the laws of reason. Rational moral principles are universal principles applicable to all humans, and moral actions should be based on the obligation to follow these principles.
- Peace and International Order: Kant presented an ideal model for peace and international legal order in his work “Perpetual Peace.” He explored the conditions for just states and international relations, aiming to establish an international legal order that upholds freedom and justice. In doing so, Kant proposed an ideal of a peaceful world order and contributed to the field of international political philosophy.
- Epistemology and Limits of Knowledge: Through his “Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant revolutionized epistemology. He analyzed the role and limits of reason, the interaction between experience and reason, and the possibilities and limitations of human knowledge. By emphasizing the importance of reason while acknowledging its interaction with empirical facts, Kant developed an epistemological framework for the formation of perception and knowledge.
4. Critique of Pure Reason
“Critique of Pure Reason” is a philosophical work by Immanuel Kant, and it is one of his significant writings. This book was first published in 1781 and it encompasses Kant’s core concepts and assertions in his philosophical system.
The “Critique of Pure Reason” engages in a critical examination of Kant’s major theory of “pure reason.” In this book, Kant explores how human reason comprehends and organizes cognition and experience, and discusses the limits and possibilities of cognition, morality, religion, and more. The book establishes the foundation of Kant’s philosophical system and presents important ideas regarding the limits of human reason and moral principles.
In the “Critique of Pure Reason,” the key concepts and assertions are as follows:
Limits and possibilities of reason: Kant investigates the limits and possibilities of reason. He argues that reason can operate in the realm of the “transcendental” beyond the empirical world. In this realm, reason can contemplate and understand the impossible, and the activities of pure reason can be experienced in domains such as art, religion, and morality.
Foundations and limits of knowledge: Kant explores the foundations of knowledge and addresses epistemological questions. He presents an epistemological framework in which cognition and knowledge are formed through the interaction of experience and reason. At the same time, he presents the limits of reason and cognition, acknowledging the limits of human knowledge.
Morality and ethics: In the “Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant extensively discusses morality and ethics. He argues that moral obligations should be grounded in the laws of reason, and pure moral laws should be universal principles applicable to all humans.
Structure and categories of cognition: Kant discusses the structure and categories of cognition. He provides the framework and categories employed by reason for cognition, enabling the possibility of knowledge.
The “Critique of Pure Reason” is one of Immanuel Kant’s seminal works, originally published in 1781, that delves into his philosophical system and core ideas.
5. Evaluations
- Georg Wilhelm Hegel: Hegel made efforts to overcome and further develop Kant’s philosophy. He took a critical stance towards Kant’s claims, particularly regarding the “Critique of Pure Reason.” Hegel advocated for a concept of reason that is historical and dynamic, in contrast to Kant’s limited notion of reason.
- Arthur Schopenhauer: Schopenhauer partially embraced Kant’s philosophy while also criticizing it. He condemned Kant’s emphasis on reason and instead constructed his own philosophical system centered around the concept of will.
- Tomasz Herman: Herman evaluates Kant as “one of the most important figures in modern philosophy.” He considers Kant’s philosophy to have a central influence on contemporary philosophy, stating that Kant’s ideas still have an impact on philosophical discussions.
- John Stuart Mill: Mill respected and acknowledged Kant’s influence but adopted a critical stance towards Kant’s philosophy. He discussed Kant’s theory of duty and ethics, pointing out the tension between individual happiness and a unified moral system.
- Ludwig Wittgenstein: Wittgenstein was influenced by Kant but did not carry on his philosophy. He focused on the problems of language and meaning, while maintaining a critical position towards Kant’s philosophical methodology.